The problem of knowledge Essay Example For Students

The problem of knowledge Essay There is a physical sound present, but there is no sound experience. It is logical to think that things occur even if there is nobody to see/hear/taste them since changes can be observed (If you leave a burning paper and come later, it will be burnt) The tables in the classroom Do tables dance when nobody is around? It is improbable for such a thing to exist, therefore it is considered false, since it is impossible to prove. Theories of reality Common-sense realism the world is the way we perceive it (What you see it what is there) Scientific realism The world exists independently but is different from what we perceive it as (Atoms in the void) Phenomenalism We can only know what we perceive (to be is to be perceived Most theories suggest the existence of an independently existing reality (Things happen also without people). We will write a custom essay on The problem of knowledge specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Reason Using reason we gain knowledge that is beyond the immediate evidence of our senses. Rationalism school of philosophy according to which reason is the most important source of knowledge even more than experience Premises The assumptions in logic, conclusions follow from them Fallacies invalid patterns of reasoning Deductive reasoning i Moving from the general to the particular. Syllogisms A kind of argument that includes: Two premises and a conclusion Three terms, each occurring twice Quantifiers (all, some, no) Truth = a property of statements Validity = a property of arguments An argument is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises and invalid when it doesnt. Trueness is independent on validity. The structure of arguments Validity of a syllogism doesnt depend on the words used but on the structure. It is possible to substitute the elements for anything else and the validity wont change. (A - B is the same as seeds-plants when speaking of validity). A fallacy called brief bias is based on concentrating not on the structure but the words themselves which may lead to false conclusions. Venn diagrams are a useful tool when deciding whether a syllogism is valid. However, Venn diagrams contain extra information which should NOT be considered as given in the first place. Deductive reasoning preserves truth if the premises are both true then the conclusion must be true. Enthymeme = an incomplete argument (e. g. Jenny goes to Oxford so she must be intelligent) All deductive reasoning is based on inductive reasoning experience Inductive reasoning i Moving from the particular to the general Is based on experience and observation which allows to draw conclusions Deduction and induction compared Deduction Reasoning from general to particular All metals expand when heated A is a metal -A expands when heated More certain, less information than Induction How reliable is inductive reasoning? Sometimes we make hasty generalizations. Sometimes, even well supported inductions are proved wrong. Confirmation bias people only see things supporting their theories and ignore exceptions. Good generalizations 1) Number need to look at a large number of examples to be able to make a generalization 2) Variety variety of circumstances different types 3) Exceptions actively look at counter-examples 4) Coherence more evidence for unlikely things 5) Subject area some areas are more certain than others (mathsbiology) Informal Reasoning The ten deadly fallacies: Ad ignorantiam Hasty generalization Post hoc ergo propter hoc Ad hominem Circular reasoning Special pleading Equivocation False analogy Claiming something is true because it cannot be proved false Generalizing from insufficient evidence Confusing a correlation with a causal connection Attacking/supporting the person rather than the argument. .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .postImageUrl , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:hover , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:visited , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:active { border:0!important; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:active , .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386 .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u03b68e5b510e46073a2dfdef39ea1386:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Snow Goose Overpopulation EssayAssuming the truth of what you are supposed to be proving Using double standards to excuse an individual or a group Using language ambiguously Assuming that because two things are alike in some aspects, they are alike in others Assuming that only two black and white alternatives exist A question that is biased because it contains a built in assumption Post hoc ergo propter hoc The fact that two things follow after each other doesnt necessarily mean that one is the cause of the other. (e. g. Day is not the cause of night) Ad hominem fallacy (against the man) Not arguing attacking/supporting the person. (e. g. What do YOU know about it? Youre just a child! / Obama says it so it must be right) Circular reasoning (vicious circle / begging the question) Arguing with the thing that needs to be proven. (e. g. God must exist because dictated wrote the bible) Special pleading Exceptions for certain people (e. g. politician immunity) Equivocation Word used in two different ways in an argument (A hamburger is better than nothing and nothing is better than good health = hamburger is better than good health) Argument ad ignorantiam Saying something is true on the basis thet it cannot be proved wrong. God exists. Do you have any proof that he does? Do you have any proof that he does not? So he must. False analogy Using analogies that are not logically correct only a rhetorical device (e. g. comparing rain to human problems) False dilemma Only putting something as black and white suggesting binary thinking when there are other options as well (e. g. You either climb that tree or you will NEVER conquer your fear! ) Loaded questions Questions that contain suggestions and cannot be answered in a yes/no manner while not telling anything. (e. g. Do you always cheat on your exams? ) Causes of bad reasoning The main reasons are ignorance, laziness, pride and prejudice. We misuse rhetorical skills in order to persuade people sometimes we even argue about things which we know are wrong rather than coming to the correct conclusion. Reason and certainty Laws of thought: The law of identity If A then A. The law of non-contradiction If A is A then it is not non-A The law of the excluded middle Everything is either A or non-A. Nothing is both. Can deductive reasoning be doubted? Reason is a matter of faith Some things are unsure and unable to be categorized properly (day/night) Everything is constantly changing? Can inductive reasoning be doubted? Induction is hard to apply for all rather than all observed Prison of consistency When you take a position on something, it is difficult to change it without losing face or to look at it from a different perspective. (It is hard to find errors in my own test) .

science extinction essays

science extinction essays Australia has an alarming amount of endangered and extinct species compared to the rest of the world. Biologists have listed all plants and animals that they know are at risk of extinction in Australia. These are called endangered species. The list includes 10 species of fish, 12 frogs, 13 reptiles, 32 birds, 33 mammals and 209 plants. In addition, there are many more species that are listed as vulnerable and some that are classified as rare. Here is an example of an endangered species. The Dugong when fully grown is about 3m long and weighs about 295kg. It has a whale like body greyish coloured skin. The sea mammal feeds on sea grass, mainly at night. Dugongs tend to live and migrate in groups. The Dugong is found in Australia in the West Indian Ocean. There was once a colony of Dugongs in Moreton Bay in Queensland, Australia. The main reason for endangerment is they were once hunted for their oil, hide and meat. In modern times the Dugong is protected by law but only in Australia. The aborigines are still able to hunt them but only if they use traditional methods of hunting. You will not find dugongs in shark-infested waters. Sharks and humans are the only predators that we know of. This amazing sea mammal is endangered because in the 1900s sailors killed them for their meat, and then later on the dugong was killed for it's oil and hide. Many animals in Australia prior to protection laws died out completely. This is called extinction. Here is an example of an extinct species. The Thyalcine or Tasmanian Tiger, closly related to the Tasmanian Devil is listed as presumed extinct under both the Federal and State Threatened Species Protection Acts. This means Thylacine have not been officially sighted in the wild or captivity for at least 50 years. The last known record of a Thylacine is from a Tasmanian zoo, where it died in 1936. ...

Microsoft Word Tips Adjusting Text Alignment - Get Proofed!

Microsoft Word Tips Adjusting Text Alignment - Get Proofed! Adjusting Text Alignment Good formatting is important. After all, you need your text to be easy to read, so it needs to be presented on the page (or screen) clearly and consistently. And text alignment is a big part of this. In this post, then, we’re looking at how to adjust the text alignment in Microsoft Word. Adjusting Text Alignment The alignment options in MS Word control how text is positioned in relation to the page margins. This can be controlled via the â€Å"Paragraph† section of the â€Å"Home† tab on the ribbon. From left to right: Align Left, Center, Align Right, and Justify. From left to right, you have four alignment options available. These are: Align Left – Used to align the text to the left margin Center – Used to position text centrally on the page Align Right – Used to align the text with the right margin Justify – Used to spread text evenly across the page so the first word on each line begins at the left margin and the last word ends at the right margin To apply formatting, simply select the relevant text (or place the cursor where you want to type) and select an alignment option. Alternatively, you can select the text you want to adjust and click the arrow in the bottom corner of the â€Å"Paragraph† section to open a new window. You can then select an option from the dropdown â€Å"Alignment† menu and click â€Å"OK.† The Paragraph menu. Which Option Should You Use? For the main body of your work, you have two main options: Align Left and Justify. Justify is popular because it creates neat blocks of text, so it looks tidy. It is also useful if you have multiple columns of text on the page (this is why newspapers and magazines often use justified text). Align Left is the default for most people, though, particularly in the publishing industry. This is because it’s easy to read and prevents â€Å"rivers† (i.e., vertical blank spaces) appearing in the text. Text alignment options. In most documents, Center should be saved for headings and subheadings. You might also use it for short passages that need to be set apart from the surrounding text. However, if you need to present a longer passage in the middle of the page, such as a block quote, you should use the indent options instead of alignment. Align Right, meanwhile, is not used for much at all. There are some rare occasions when it is useful, such as for positioning a caption relative to an image. Usually, though, it just makes things harder to read. The key with formatting in any document, however, is clarity and consistency. The best alignment option to pick is therefore the one that makes your document as easy to read as possible. If you need a little assistance with your formatting, though, get in touch to see how we can help.

Discussion question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 12

Discussion question - Essay Example t they are self-evident and inalienable (MacKinnon, 76).† In fact, American Declaration of Independence 1776 is the clearer formulation of this concept. Thomas Jefferson mentions a quote about the equal rights of all men â€Å"....... that all men are created equal, .......... with certain inalienable rights........† This is the source for ascertaining what should be weighed â€Å"natural right.† Another time, the U.S. Border Patrol Agents’ similar assertion from the case when they state it is justified for the reason that a considerable amount of Latinos in border regions are in America illicitly (MacKinnon, 76) their assertion moves against the â€Å"natural right† in accordance to what Jefferson told. Moreover, the statement disagrees with the equality principle. Author also defines the principle of equality in this book as, â€Å"It is unjust to treat people differently in ways that deny to some of them significant social benefits unless we can show that there is a difference between them that is relevant to the differential treatment (MacKinnon 196).† America has archaic laws regarding drugs. Against the trade of drugs, the law enforcement has been very restricted to imprisoning causal drug users. In Mexico, the drug lobbies, and the prison lobbies that are operated privately, both expend obscene amounts of wealth, to see that recreational drugs stay illicit. Until the U.S. laws are restructured, the jails will be overloaded, with people who are young, incarcerated for non-violent offences, like use or possession of just a small amount of drugs. As noted by Auroch, most of the privately operated jails are owned by the â€Å"1 per cent,† and the Republican Party is controlled by this â€Å"1 per cent†. (HumanJustice.org. 2010) However, it is obviously not accepted and the U.S. government should consider this massive issue and make suitable laws about this because this is against the human

Molecular Basis of Disease Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Molecular Basis of Disease - Lab Report Example People lacking the absorption ability of vitamin B12 remain with the disease for the rest of their lives. Parietal cells found in the gastric cells are responsible for production of hydrochloric acid which is important in digestion as it provides a favorable medium for enzyme reaction. The serum found from patients having this disease react with ? and ? sub units. The antibodies are used for diagnostic purposes. This experiment involves testing of serum of antibodies from various patients to determine if they react with the sodium pump which contains ? and ? sub units. This will help in diagnosing pernicious anemia. A mouse is used in this experiment since its stomach structure is similar to that of a man. A primary antibody and a secondary antibody are also used in this experiment as they react with the mouse antigens. Anti proton pump of a human being can also cross react with proteins of the mouse making the mouse a favorable specimen for the experiment. From the experiment we exp ect antibody response to help us diagnose pernicious anemia. Aims The aim of this experiment is to determine whether samples from patients contain antibodies and also to diagnose patients having the disease through Western blotting; Immuno histochemistry using the gastric proton pump. Materials and Methods The materials used includes; SDS polyacrylamide gel (80%, resolving gel 40% upper stacking gel), Gel running buffer (25 mM Tris, pH 5.3, 0.192M Glycerin, 0.1% SDS), Gel apparatus, power supply, mouse stomach protein,5? SDS sample buffer (0.315 Tris, pH 6.8, 25% glycerol 10% SDS, 5% 2-beta mercaptoethanol, 0.025% Bromophenol blue), Protein MW standards, heat block, Gel loading tips, transfer apparatus, transfer buffer (25mM Tris, 192mM glycine,20% methanol), nitrocellulose membrane, filter paper, 0.1% Ponceau in1% acetic acid, 0.1M NaoH, TBS Tris buffered saline, Blocking solution TBS containing 5% skim milk powder. Materials required to obtain a mouse stomach include; a slide cont aining section of mouse stomach, xylene, hemoglobin, acid alcohol, Scott’s tap water, eosin, DPX mounting media and cover slips. Procedure to obtain mouse stomach morphology The slide containing mouse stomach is incubated in xylene and ethanol for two minutes respectively. After this the slide is rinsed in tap water for 30 seconds. The slide is then incubated in the hemoglobin for 2 minutes. The slide is rinsed again in tap water for 30 seconds after which it is placed in 1% acid alcohol for 3 seconds after which it is rinsed again in tap water for 30 seconds. The slide is incubated in Scott’s tap water for 30 seconds after which it is swashed in water for 30 seconds. The slide is then placed in eosin for 4minutes and excess is blotted off by a paper towel. The slide is then placed in 80% ethanol and again 90% after which the slide is incubated in ethanol for 2 minutes then allowed to air dry. A drop of DPX mounting medium is placed on the section and then covered by a cover slip. An observation is made under the microscope and diagrams made as follows. Fig 1 showing a mouse stomach with Haematoxylin To prepare the stomach protein sample, 200Â µl of protein is placed into a microfuge tube and 50Â µl 5? SDS sample buffer is added. The marker and the protein sample tubes are spine for a few seconds to bring the liquid to the bottom of the tube. The MW markers and proteins are then loaded using a special gel loading tips. The apparatus is then connected to a power supply of 200V and run for 1 hour until

Orthopaedic Management Of Cerebral Palsy Health And Social Care Essay

Orthopaedic Management Of Cerebral Palsy Health And Social Care Essay The condition of cerebral palsy refers to a varied group of permanent disorders of movement and posture caused by injury to the immature brain in utero, at birth or in the first years of life. These lesions are static not progressive and can be caused by a wide variety of factors such as intrauterine infections, trauma, neonatal stroke and genes, often in combination. Reflecting the varied aetiology and sites of injury cerebral palsy is often accompanied by neurological disturbances in cognition, behaviour, sensation and epilepsy. Most significantly from the orthopaedic perspective is that it leads to a progressive musculoskeletal pathology and abnormalities of muscle strength, tone and joint movement. These tend to be hidden at birth and are only revealed during the rapid growth of childhood as spasticity leads to abnormal posturing and thus secondary contractures and impaired torsional bone remodelling. Eventually this process leads to problems such as scoliosis, hip dislocation an d the development of fixed contractures.1 It is here that orthopaedic surgery can intervene by correcting fixed deformities leading to improved function and appearance. Cerebral palsy is the most common cause of referral to elective paediatric orthopaedic units.2 This essay will discuss the various surgical techniques that can be employed to tackle the musculoskeletal problems caused by cerebral palsy. Classification Cerebral palsy is classified based on the type of movement disorder present. The spastic form is the predominant type and can be divided into the subcategories of hemiplegic, diplegic or quadriplegic depending on topography. Appropriate management varies between these forms based on the level of functional outcome that can be expected; the most significant factor being whether the child is ambulant or not. It was the advent of gait analysis in the 1990s that revolutionised treatment of ambulatory cerebral palsy. Prior to this surgical intervention to improve gait was a matter of opinion, and often led to unexpected new problems which were even more intractable. The systematic empirical approach of gait analysis, however, enabled both more targeted and precise interventions and also critical evaluation of the outcomes of surgery.3 http://www.cpl.org.au/images/default-source/research/cp-body-map-graphics.jpg?sfvrsn=2 [Image 1: Distribution of symptoms in subtypes of cerebral palsy. Source: Cerebral Palsy League4] Modern gait analysis takes place in a specialised laboratory and includes a standardised physical exam, video recording, kinematic and kinetic measurements, electromyography, pedobarography and estimation of the energy consumption of walking.5 Age Generally speaking surgery for ambulant CP is not attempted until after the age of 7 by which time a mature gait pattern has developed. Between this age and the onset of the growth spurt in adolescence bone surgery is sometimes required in order to stabilise the bony levers of progression in the leg. These include femoral or tibial derotation osteotomies, intertrochanteric derotation of the femur and stabilisation of the subtalar complex.6 It is between the ages of 8 and the main adolescent growth spurt (12-13 in girls, 13-14 in boys) that soft tissue surgery is undertaken, the ideal timing remaining contentious.7 Increasing maturity and awareness allow for more complex surgeries that require strict compliance with rehabilitation programmes to succeed. Yet this must be balanced against the effects of the rapid growth of bone and muscle that may exacerbate and complicate deformity. Surgery for spastic diplegia Despite advances in the usage of botulinum toxin A, intrathecal baclofen and selective dorsal rhizotomy to reduce spasticity most children with cerebral palsy still develop progressive musculoskeletal deformities as they grow. These include fixed joint contractures and bony deformities collectively referred to as lever arm disease and which can only be treated effectively surgically.8 In the past a child with spastic CP typically presented with toe-walking and was managed by lengthening of the tendo Achillis. Although this procedure successfully levelled the foot it often led to a crouch gait as contractures of the knee and hip developed progressively in late childhood. Nowadays there is a strong consensus that the best approach is to gait correction is to address all deformities simultaneously in what is known as single-event multi-level surgery.9 Correcting fixed contractures is achieved by either fractional lengthening or muscle-tendon recession. Established procedures include tenotomy (lengthening) of the psoas muscle at the pelvic brim, rectus femoris transfer to semitendinosus or sartorius and fractional lengthening of the medial hamstrings. To correct bony torsional abnormalities necessitates rotational osteotomies. For femoral anteversion and concomitant hip internal rotation, femoral derotation osteotomy has proven to produce very effective and durable results.10 In order to correct a valgus foot deformity there are two options; a lengthening osteotomy of the os calcis or more commonly an extra-articular subtalar joint fusion utilizing an autogenous graft of bone from the iliac crest combined with a screw fixation .11 Spastic hemiplegia The most common joint deformities in the upper limb include internal rotation of the shoulder, elbow flexion, forearm pronation, wrist flexion and ulnar deviation, and swan-neck and thumb-in-palm deformities in the digits .12 Muscular injection with BTX-A can be useful in managing stiffness and increasing range of movement but is not effective at improving function.13 As with gait correction deformities in the upper limb are treated in a one-stage multilevel operation combining muscle releases and tendon transfers. The most common procedures are biceps aponeurosis and pronator teres release for pronation of the forearm, tendon transfers to extensor carpi radialis longus or brevis for ulnar deviation/wrist flexion (with first web z-plasty) and first dorsal interosseous and adductor muscle release with tendon transfer for thumb-in-palm.12 Patterns of gait in spastic hemiplegia have been classified comprehensively by Winters et al. and can be used to plan surgical management. In groups I and II the primary abnormality is drop foot due to equinus contracture which can be treated by lengthening of the gastrocsoleus muscle and appropriate orthosis. The situation is more complex, however in groups III and IV which require multilevel surgical intervention and gait analysis due to the involvement of proximal muscles leading to jump knee gait and in the case of group IV fixed hip flexion on top of equinovarus. These can be managed in the same way as soft tissue deformities in spastic diplegia by fractional lengthening or muscle-tendon recession.14 [Image 2: Saggital gait patterns in hemiplegia: classification and management. For each group: contractures shown in orange text, orthoses in green, surgical correction in red. Adapted from Winter et al.14] Tendon transfers to correct muscle imbalances are also employed in hemiplegia. This is most useful for equinovarus deformity, which is treated with split tendon transfer of the tibialis posterior (useful in the younger patient with more flexible deformity) or anterior combined with lengthening of the gastrocsoleus and tibialis posterior (better for older children with stiffer deformity).15, 16 Another possible problem in hemiplegia is limb shortening, presenting most commonly in the tibia and ranging from 1-3 cm. If necessary operative correction can be achieved by epiphysiodesis at the end of growth plates proximal to the knee at the appropriate age.7 Spastic Quadriplegia Surgical management of a child with spastic quadriplegia is particularly challenging owing to the presence of multiple co-morbidities such as epilepsy, osteopenia, respiratory disease and nutritional deficiencies. As such it requires the close co-operation of a multi-disciplinary team to manage possible complications as well as follow-up in terms of pain and intensive care. A variety of tests are important to help assess suitability for surgery. Lung function tests are used to evaluate the likely necessity of protracted assisted ventilation after the operation. Testing serum total protein and albumin levels is used to spot malnutrition associated with poor wound healing and infection. Detection of osteomalcia due to anti-epileptic medication is important and must be treated, and improving general nutritional state through supplementation is often desirable. Finally, identification of the degree of osteoporosis due to disuse is relevant in assessing the stability of any surgical fixat ion desired.7 Hip Management Hip displacement is rarest in spastic hemiplegia at 1%, uncommon in spastic hemiplegia at 5%, but much more common in spastic quadriplegia with an estimated incidence of 35-55%.17 If left untreated it may lead kyphotic sitting posture and pelvic obliquity increasing the risk of spinal deformity as well as chronic hip pain and increased difficulties in activities of daily living. In hemiplegia and diplegia the gait is so severely impacted that subluxation is identified early due to rapid orthopaedic referral. In quadriplegia, however, due to the higher visibility of issues such as seizures and feeding difficulties and the fact hip displacement is hidden in the early stages, it often can go undetected. Thus systematic radiographic screening is vital to detect it early with one study recommending commencing at 30 months and following up every 6 months thereafter.18 When abnormality is detected it is best to intervene early to try to prevent dislocation. The favoured soft tissue surgical approach is adductor and psoas tenotomies.19 If dislocation has already been established more drastic intervention is required with a single-stage open reduction of the hip, combined with a varus shortening derotation osteotomy of the proximal femur, which relieves pressure from the rim of the acetabulum stimulating growth and balancing the soft tissues by re-tensioning the hip abductors and relaxing the adductors, and a pelvic osteotomy to improve the shape and coverage of the acetabulum.20 Although this procedure offers the best long-term prognosis in terms of stability, further dislocations are not infrequent.21 Scoliosis Scoliosis in cerebral palsy can be non-structural secondary to femoral and pelvic muscular spasticity or structural secondary to contractures of the intrinsic spinal muscles. In non-ambulant patients it often extends to the sacrum and is associated with poor sitting posture, pelvic obliquity and hip dislocation. Prevention of these is thus vital to reducing the risk of distortion of the spine. Surgically the established management of severe scoliosis is instrumented posterior fusion along the length of the spine to the pelvis.6 Conclusion As surgical techniques for correcting deformities have proliferated and been refined in recent decades so the orthopaedic management of cerebral palsy has progressed from art to science. We are now in the pleasing position of having a tried and tested toolbox of procedures to deploy in the common musculoskeletal pathologies induced by diplegia, hemiplegia or quadriplegia. Yet a tool is only useful if it is used in the right place and so it is arguably the standardised assessment provided by gait analysis as well as improved understanding of the development of gait that has made the most difference by allowing clinicians to target interventions precisely temporally and anatomically to ensure the best outcomes. Although validated evaluations exist for the upper arm they have yet to reach the same level of reliability and universality as gait analysis, a desirable goal for future research. It is also important to remember that orthopaedic interventions can only ever ameliorate rather than solve the lifelong disabilities caused by cerebral palsy. For this reason it is vital that management first and foremost takes into account the desired outcomes of patients and carers including concerns such as cosmesis and independence. Likewise it is important to emphasise functional outcomes rather than abstract measures of deformity as these are in the end more important to patients.

Online information system Essay

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Future university’s training unit deliver training services to both novice and professionals in different areas of information technology core courses, arts and design, programming languages as well as basic studies manually. Interested individuals enroll in any of the available courses only by going to the university’s training unit. Also there is no means of advertising these services which is vital to those in search of it, somehow there is need for the training center to have a fully functional system that serve the same purpose online 24/7. 1.2 SITE OF THE PROJECT Future University 1.3 NATURE OF THE PROJECT Web based application 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of the study is that it will help in designing a system that will provide services online to subscribers of training programs. The training unit can also make use of the outcome of this study for the purpose of providing effective and convenient services to its subscribers. When completed the system will provide the following benefits: 1.It will provide user convenience since it can be accessed from anywhere around the globe through the internet. 2.It will serve as a means for the trainers to handle large number of trainees from different locations around the world at a time. 3.The proposed system will provide an advertisement functionality for the global reach of the training unit. 4.The online services will also provide easy access to information. 2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 2.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT 2.1.1General problem There is no online system by which the training unit can advertise its training services in order to gain recognition worldwide. And the records of  information is done manually. 2.1.2 Specific problem 1.Registration of trainees is done manual therefore requiring large amount of paper work. 2.Bulk amount of papers occupy most of the office space and cost a lot of money. 3.The training unit has no means of creating awareness apart from the university’s medium. 4.There is no proper scheduling of courses and this may cause trainees’ dissatisfaction. 2.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES 2.2.1 General Objectives To develop a web application that will deliver the same services in more efficient and effective way. 2.2.2 Specific Objectives 1.To include a database system within the application to store retrieve, manipulate, secure and save data. 2.To add interactive graphics to support awareness creation on the web as e-advertisement. 3.To develop a module that will provide a convenient scheduling for the training. 2.3SCOPE AND LIMITATION 1.The proposed system will cover the issues of awareness by including advertisement functionality. 2. Subscribers of the training and the trainers supposed to have a forum for further discussions but unfortunately that will not be covered in this project. 3.This project will not cover the payment system. 2.4 Methodology Traditional waterfall model. 3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 3.1 Resources Requirement for Development For the purpose of developing the system the following resources are required 3.1.1Hardware requirements The hardware needed for the development process is a computer system with the following specification HardwareDescription ProcessorCore i5 Random Access MemoryRAM 6GB Hard disk 750 GB 3.1.2 Software requirements SoftwareSpecification ServerII express Server Side Scripting LanguageAsp.net IDEVisual studio 2013 professional for web 3.2 Resources Requirement for Deployment 3.2.1 Hardware requirements The hardware needed for the deployment process is a computer system with the following specification